# Chapter 2 Summarizing Data

Before we consider modeling the data in any meaningful way, it is important to explore the data to get some sense of what the data looks like, as certain modeling decisions will depend on the structure of the data. This chapter and the next will cover how to examine and visualize the data.

We will be using the built-in data set “auto” for a lot of the examples. If you’re not familiar with the sysuse command, it functions similarly to use, except only loads one of the several built-in Stata data sets.

. sysuse auto, clear
(1978 Automobile Data)



The “auto” data set contains characteristics on a number of cars from 1978.

## 2.1describe, summarize, codebook

The majority of the Stata modeling commands require all variables to be numeric. String variables can be used in some places, but there are plenty of times when you might expect them to work, but they don’t. As a result, I recommend converting all categorical variables into numeric. To help with this, the describe command can tell us what variables are string and which aren’t.

. describe

obs:            74                          1978 Automobile Data
vars:            12                          13 Apr 2018 17:45
(_dta has notes)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
storage   display    value
variable name   type    format     label      variable label
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
make            str18   %-18s                 Make and Model
price           int     %8.0gc                Price
mpg             int     %8.0g                 Mileage (mpg)
rep78           int     %8.0g                 Repair Record 1978
trunk           int     %8.0g                 Trunk space (cu. ft.)
weight          int     %8.0gc                Weight (lbs.)
length          int     %8.0g                 Length (in.)
turn            int     %8.0g                 Turn Circle (ft.)
displacement    int     %8.0g                 Displacement (cu. in.)
gear_ratio      float   %6.2f                 Gear Ratio
foreign         byte    %8.0g      origin     Car type
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sorted by: foreign



Here we can see that “make” is a string; but make is unique per row (it identifies the make and model of each car) so it’s not something we’re going to use in the model. If you wanted to use string functions (see help string functions for details) to extract out the manufacturer of each car (e.g. there are 7 Buicks in the data), that resultant “manufacturer” variable would be something we’d need to convert to a numeric. The main tools you’d need would be destring (which converts numeric values saved as strings into numbers) and encode (which converts strings to numerics with appropriate value labels).

describe is also useful to get a sense of the size of your data.

Once we’ve taken a look at the structure of the data, we can start exploring each variable. The summarize and codebook commands contains almost the same information, presented in slightly different ways. It can be useful to look at both. For example,

. summ price, detail

Price
-------------------------------------------------------------
Percentiles      Smallest
1%         3291           3291
5%         3748           3299
10%         3895           3667       Obs                  74
25%         4195           3748       Sum of Wgt.          74

50%       5006.5                      Mean           6165.257
Largest       Std. Dev.      2949.496
75%         6342          13466
90%        11385          13594       Variance        8699526
95%        13466          14500       Skewness       1.653434
99%        15906          15906       Kurtosis       4.819188

. codebook price

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
price                                                                     Price
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

type:  numeric (int)

range:  [3291,15906]                 units:  1
unique values:  74                       missing .:  0/74

mean:   6165.26
std. dev:    2949.5

percentiles:        10%       25%       50%       75%       90%
3895      4195    5006.5      6342     11385



Things to look for here include

• Values which are outside of expected values. The summarize commands gives the 1st and 99th percentiles (1% and 99% of values are below those thresholds, respectively) and codebook gives the range. If, for example, we saw a minimum value of -203 or a maximum value of 145200 (keep in mind these are 1978 dollars!), that’s an indication that there is an issue with the data, likely a mistake.
• The mean is as expected. If this is higher or lower than expected, it might be an indication of skew or the existence of outliers. If it is very close to the minimum or maximum value, perhaps you have a point mass (e.g. if you polled 18-21 year old’s on their number of children, there would be a lot of 0’s but a few non-zeros).
• If the standard deviation is very small (relative to the mean), then the variable has very consistent values. A standard deviation of 0 indicates a constant.
• The codebook reports the number of missing; if you have missing data, double check that it is not an error in the data. Perhaps multiple imputation is needed.
• If the variable is categorical (e.g. race), is the number of unique entries reported in the codebook as expected?

## 2.2mean

The mean command gives summary statistics on the mean of a variable.

. mean price

Mean estimation                   Number of obs   =         74

--------------------------------------------------------------
|       Mean   Std. Err.     [95% Conf. Interval]
-------------+------------------------------------------------
price |   6165.257   342.8719      5481.914      6848.6
--------------------------------------------------------------



These are characteristics of the estimated mean of the “price” variable. The standard deviation reported from the summarize command above represents the variability among individual cars; the standard error reported by mean the variability of means: if we were to repeatedly draw samples of size 74, the standard error is a measure of the variability of the means from all those samples.

The confidence interval is interpreted as if we were to continue drawing those samples of size 74, we would expect 95% of those samples to have an estimated mean within those bounds. It is not that we’re 95% confident that the true population mean falls in that range - either it does or it doesn’t!

## 2.3 Estimation Commands

The introduction of mean allows us to discuss estimation commands. An estimation command is any command that fits a statistical model - some of these are obvious such as regress for linear regression, but others such as mean which we just ran are also estimation commands because it is estimating a confidence interval. summarize is not because it only provides statistics about the current sample instead of making inference into the population.

Almost all estimation commands have the same general syntax:

command varlist [if] [in] [weight] [,options]


The sections inside [ and ] are optional. The command can sometimes consist of a main command and one or more subcommands. The varlist can be empty, have a single entry, or have multiple entries (the order of which is sometimes of importance - generally the first is some outcome or dependent variable and the rest are predictors or independent variables).1

Estimation commands are stored after they are run, and persist regardless of how many other non-estimation commands are run in between them. These non-estimation commands include data manipulation and postestimation commands. As soon as another estimation command is run, the first is dropped and the new one is saved.

This allows interesting things such as replaying a command (calling the estimation command again without any varlist to re-display it’s results) even if the data is gone!

. clear

. list

. mean

Mean estimation                   Number of obs   =         74

--------------------------------------------------------------
|       Mean   Std. Err.     [95% Conf. Interval]
-------------+------------------------------------------------
price |   6165.257   342.8719      5481.914      6848.6
--------------------------------------------------------------



A larger benefit of this is that if you are fitting a model on one data set and want to get predicted values on another, you could do something like this (this is pseudo-code, not real Stata!):

use fitting_data
model y x1 x2
use newdata, clear
predict fitted


### 2.3.1 Postestimation commands

Since the last estimation command is saved, any commands which need to reference it (called postestimation commands) do so inherently, no need to specify. For example, let’s reload the data and run mean on a few variables.

. sysuse auto, clear
(1978 Automobile Data)

Mean estimation                   Number of obs   =         74

--------------------------------------------------------------
|       Mean   Std. Err.     [95% Conf. Interval]
-------------+------------------------------------------------
mpg |    21.2973   .6725511       19.9569    22.63769
headroom |   2.993243   .0983449      2.797242    3.189244
length |   187.9324   2.588409      182.7737    193.0911
--------------------------------------------------------------



Let’s say we want to obtain the correlation matrix2

. estat vce, corr

Correlation matrix of coefficients of mean model

-------------+------------------------------
mpg |   1.0000
length |  -0.7958    0.5163    1.0000



Here we see that both length and headroom are negatively correlated with mpg; as the car gets larger, its mileage decreases. Headroom and length are positively correlated, so cars aren’t just growing in one direction!

The estat command is somewhat generic, we will see other uses of it later.

Similar to how you can get help with any command with help, e.g. help mean, you can get a list of all postestimation commands that a given estimation command supports:

help mean postestimation


There is also a link to the postestimation page in the help for the estimation command.

### 2.3.2 Storing and restoring estimation commands

The obvious downside to Stata’s approach to saving the most recent estimation command is that you lose all earlier commands. If you have only a limited number of commands and each is fast, this isn’t a big deal. However, with some more advanced approaches, modeling can become very slow, so you may not want to lose the results. Stata has a solution for this, allowing us to store and recall estimation commands without having to re-run them. This has an obvious parallel to the preserve/restore commands that affect the data.

You have the choice of saving the results temporarily (in memory) or permanently (to a file). There are the obvious pro’s and con’s to each approach. For these notes I will focus primarily on storing the results in memory, but I will point out where the commands differ if saving to a file. Let’s run a fresh mean call to work with. The estimates command will be used.

. mean price mpg

Mean estimation                   Number of obs   =         74

--------------------------------------------------------------
|       Mean   Std. Err.     [95% Conf. Interval]
-------------+------------------------------------------------
price |   6165.257   342.8719      5481.914      6848.6
mpg |    21.2973   .6725511       19.9569    22.63769
--------------------------------------------------------------

. estimates query
(active results produced by mean; not yet stored)



The query subcommand tells us what estimation command was last run, and whether it has already been saved. Here it has not. Let’s save these results.

. estimates store mean1



To save to a file, use estimates save instead. Now let’s run a second mean commands.

. mean mpg headroom length

Mean estimation                   Number of obs   =         74

--------------------------------------------------------------
|       Mean   Std. Err.     [95% Conf. Interval]
-------------+------------------------------------------------
mpg |    21.2973   .6725511       19.9569    22.63769
headroom |   2.993243   .0983449      2.797242    3.189244
length |   187.9324   2.588409      182.7737    193.0911
--------------------------------------------------------------

. est store mean2

. est query
(active results produced by mean; also stored as mean2)



Now query is telling us that the current estimation commands are (obviously) stored as “mean2”. Let’s use estimates restore to jump between the two. (If saving to a file, use estimates use instead.)

. est restore mean1
(results mean1 are active now)

. estat vce, corr

Correlation matrix of coefficients of mean model

e(V) |    price       mpg
-------------+--------------------
price |   1.0000
mpg |  -0.4686    1.0000

. est query
(active results produced by mean; also stored as mean1)



To “replay” an estimation command (re-display the results without re-running the model), you can either restore it and call the blank command again:

. est restore mean2
(results mean2 are active now)

. mean

Mean estimation                   Number of obs   =         74

--------------------------------------------------------------
|       Mean   Std. Err.     [95% Conf. Interval]
-------------+------------------------------------------------
mpg |    21.2973   .6725511       19.9569    22.63769
headroom |   2.993243   .0983449      2.797242    3.189244
length |   187.9324   2.588409      182.7737    193.0911
--------------------------------------------------------------



or use estimates replay directly:

. est query
(active results produced by mean; also stored as mean2)

. est replay mean1

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Model mean1
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Mean estimation                   Number of obs   =         74

--------------------------------------------------------------
|       Mean   Std. Err.     [95% Conf. Interval]
-------------+------------------------------------------------
price |   6165.257   342.8719      5481.914      6848.6
mpg |    21.2973   .6725511       19.9569    22.63769
--------------------------------------------------------------



One use of stored estimates that can be useful is creating a table to include all the results.

. est table mean1 mean2

----------------------------------------
Variable |   mean1        mean2
-------------+--------------------------
price |  6165.2568
mpg |  21.297297    21.297297
length |               187.93243
----------------------------------------



If you are familiar with regression, you should be able to see how useful this might be!

Finally, we can see all saved estimates with dir, drop a specific estimation command with drop, or remove all with clear:

. est dir

-------------------------------------------------------
name | command      depvar       npar  title
-------------+-----------------------------------------
mean1 | mean         Mean            2
mean2 | mean         Mean            3
-------------------------------------------------------

. est drop mean1

. est dir

-------------------------------------------------------
name | command      depvar       npar  title
-------------+-----------------------------------------
mean2 | mean         Mean            3
-------------------------------------------------------

. est clear

. est dir



## 2.4tab

Continuing on with exploring the data, categorical variables are not summarized well by the mean. Instead, we’ll look at a tabulation.

. tabulate rep78

Repair |
Record 1978 |      Freq.     Percent        Cum.
------------+-----------------------------------
1 |          2        2.90        2.90
2 |          8       11.59       14.49
3 |         30       43.48       57.97
4 |         18       26.09       84.06
5 |         11       15.94      100.00
------------+-----------------------------------
Total |         69      100.00



This gives us the count at each level, the percent at each level, as well as the cumulative percent (e.g. 57.97% of observations have a value of 3 or below). The cumulative percentage is only informative for an ordinal variable (a categorical variable that has an ordering too it), and not an unordered categorical variable such as race.

Note that it is counting a total of 69 observations to total 100% of the data. However, you may have noticed earlier that we have 74 rows of data. By default, tabulate does not include any information about missing values. The missing option corrects that.

. tab rep78, missing

Repair |
Record 1978 |      Freq.     Percent        Cum.
------------+-----------------------------------
1 |          2        2.70        2.70
2 |          8       10.81       13.51
3 |         30       40.54       54.05
4 |         18       24.32       78.38
5 |         11       14.86       93.24
. |          5        6.76      100.00
------------+-----------------------------------
Total |         74      100.00



It’s important to keep in mind the difference between the percentages of the two outputs. For example, 11.59% of non-missing values of rep78 are 2, whereas only 10.81% of all values are 2.

There are a few other options related to how the results are visualized which we will not cover.

### 2.4.1 Two-way tables

We will cover two-way tables (also known as “crosstabs”) later in univariate analysis, but there is a peculiarity to tab related to it. If you pass two variables to tab, it creates the crosstab:

. tab rep78 foreign, missing

Repair |
Record |       Car type
1978 |  Domestic    Foreign |     Total
-----------+----------------------+----------
1 |         2          0 |         2
2 |         8          0 |         8
3 |        27          3 |        30
4 |         9          9 |        18
5 |         2          9 |        11
. |         4          1 |         5
-----------+----------------------+----------
Total |        52         22 |        74



### 2.4.2 Generating dummy variables

Although Stata has excellent categorical variable handling capabilities, you may occasionally have the situation where you want the dummy variables instead of a category. For an example of the difference, consider a “campus” variable with three options, “central”, “north” and “medical”. Imagine our data looks like:

id campus campuscentral campusnorth campusmedical
1 north 0 1 0
2 central 1 0 0
3 north 0 1 0
4 north 0 1 0
5 medical 0 0 1

Notice that the information in campus and the information encoded in campuscentral, campusnorth, and campusmedical are identical. A 1 in the campus____ variables represents “True” and 0 represents “False”, and only a single 1 is allowed per row.

As mentioned, we will most of the time use categorical variables such as campus over dummy variables like campus_____ (these are used in the actual model, but Stata creates them for you behind the scenes so you don’t need to worry about them), but if necessary, you can create the dummy variables using tab:

. list rep* in 1/5

+-------+
| rep78 |
|-------|
1. |     3 |
2. |     3 |
3. |     . |
4. |     3 |
5. |     4 |
+-------+

. tab rep78, gen(reps)

Repair |
Record 1978 |      Freq.     Percent        Cum.
------------+-----------------------------------
1 |          2        2.90        2.90
2 |          8       11.59       14.49
3 |         30       43.48       57.97
4 |         18       26.09       84.06
5 |         11       15.94      100.00
------------+-----------------------------------
Total |         69      100.00

. list rep* in 1/5

+-----------------------------------------------+
| rep78   reps1   reps2   reps3   reps4   reps5 |
|-----------------------------------------------|
1. |     3       0       0       1       0       0 |
2. |     3       0       0       1       0       0 |
3. |     .       .       .       .       .       . |
4. |     3       0       0       1       0       0 |
5. |     4       0       0       0       1       0 |
+-----------------------------------------------+



If you are not familiar with the list command, it prints out data. Giving it a variable (or multiple) restricts it to those (here we restricted it to rep*, which is any variable that starts with “rep” - the * is a wildcard), and the in statement restricts to the first 5 observations (we just want a quick visualization, not to print everything).

Take note of how the missing value is propogated when creating the dummies.

## 2.5correlate

With the use of tab for crosstabs, we’ve left univariate summaries and moved to joint summaries. For continuous variables, we can use the correlation to examine how similar two continuous variables are. The most common version of correlation is Pearson’s correlation, which ranges from -1 to 1.

• A value of 0 represents no correlation; having information about one variable provides no insight into the other.
• A value towards 1 represents positive correlation; as one value increases, the other tends to increase as well. A correlation of 1 would be perfect correlation; the two variables differ by only a transformation, e.g. your height in inches and centimeters.
• A value towards -1 represents negative correlation; as one value increases, the other tends to decreases (and vice-versa). A correlation of -1 would be perfect negative correlation, e.g. during a road trip, your distance travel is perfectly negatively correlated with your distance to you destination (ignoring detours).

We can calculate the Pearson’s correlation with correlate.

. correlate weight length
(obs=74)

|   weight   length
-------------+------------------
weight |   1.0000
length |   0.9460   1.0000



This produces whats known as the correlation matrix. The diagonal entries are both 1, because clearly each variable is perfectly correlated with itself! The off-diagonal entries are identical since correlation is a symmetric operation. The value of .95 is extremely close to one, as we would expect - longer cars are heavier and perhaps vice-versa. Another way to think of it is that once we know weight, learning length does not add much information. On the other hand,

. corr price turn
(obs=74)

|    price     turn
-------------+------------------
price |   1.0000
turn |   0.3096   1.0000



with a correlation of .31, learning turn when you already know price does add a lot of information.

We can look at multiple correlations at once as well.

. corr mpg weight length
(obs=74)

|      mpg   weight   length
-------------+---------------------------
mpg |   1.0000
weight |  -0.8072   1.0000
length |  -0.7958   0.9460   1.0000



We see the .9460 we saw earlier, but notice also that mpg is negatively correlated with both weight and length - a larger car gets worse mileage and low mileage cars tend to be large. A few notes:

• The amount of information contained is irrespective of the sign; knowing the mpg of a car, adding information about its weight doesn’t add much information.
• The two correlations with mpg are extremely similar. We might generally expect that, given that weight and length are so strongly correlated. Note that despite that we expect that, it is not a rule - it is entirely possible (though unlikely) that the correlations with mpg could be very dissimilar.

What are thresholds for a “low” or “high” correlation? This will depend greatly on your field and setting, a common metric is that .3 is a low correlation, .6 is a moderate correlation, and .8 is a strong correlation.

It is possible to obtain p-values testing whether each of those correlations are significantly distinguishable from 0 by passing the sig option. However, p-values for correlations are extremely dependent on sample size and should not be trusted.3 The magnitude of the correlation is much more important than it’s significance.

### 2.5.1 varlists in Stata

Consider if we wanted to look at all the continuous variables in the data. We could write corr price mpg … and make a very long command. The collection of all variables would be a “varlist”. Stata has several ways of short cutting this.

The first we’ve already seen when we used the wildcard “*” above. We can use * anywhere in the variable name to denote any number of additional characters. E.g. “thisvar” matches “thisvar”, “thisnewvar”, “this-var”, “thisHFJHDJSHFKDHFKSHvar”, etc. A second wildcard, “?”, represents just a single variable, so “thisvar” would match only “this-var” from that list, as well as “thisAvar”, “thisJvar”, etc.

Secondly, we can match a subset of variables that are next to each other using “-”. All variable, starting with the one to the left of the - and ending with the one to the right of the - are included. For example,

. desc, simple
price         trunk         displacement  reps2
mpg           weight        gear_ratio    reps3
rep78         length        foreign       reps4

. desc trunk-turn

storage   display    value
variable name   type    format     label      variable label
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
trunk           int     %8.0g                 Trunk space (cu. ft.)
weight          int     %8.0gc                Weight (lbs.)
length          int     %8.0g                 Length (in.)
turn            int     %8.0g                 Turn Circle (ft.)



We can combine those two, as well as specifying individual variables.

. corr price-rep78 t* displacement
(obs=69)

|    price      mpg    rep78    trunk     turn displa~t
-------------+------------------------------------------------------
price |   1.0000
mpg |  -0.4559   1.0000
rep78 |   0.0066   0.4023   1.0000
trunk |   0.3232  -0.5798  -0.1572   1.0000
turn |   0.3302  -0.7355  -0.4961   0.6008   1.0000
displacement |   0.5479  -0.7434  -0.4119   0.6287   0.8124   1.0000



price, mpg and rep78 are included as part of price-rep78, t* matches trunk and turn, and displacement is included by itself.

Finally, there is the special variable list _all, which is shorthand for all variables (e.g. firstvar-lastvar). It is accepted in most but not all places that take in variables.

. corr _all
(make ignored because string variable)
(obs=69)

|    price      mpg    rep78 headroom    trunk   weight   length
-------------+---------------------------------------------------------------
price |   1.0000
mpg |  -0.4559   1.0000
rep78 |   0.0066   0.4023   1.0000
headroom |   0.1112  -0.3996  -0.1480   1.0000
trunk |   0.3232  -0.5798  -0.1572   0.6608   1.0000
weight |   0.5478  -0.8055  -0.4003   0.4795   0.6691   1.0000
length |   0.4425  -0.8037  -0.3606   0.5240   0.7326   0.9478   1.0000
turn |   0.3302  -0.7355  -0.4961   0.4347   0.6008   0.8610   0.8631
displacement |   0.5479  -0.7434  -0.4119   0.4763   0.6287   0.9316   0.8621
gear_ratio |  -0.3802   0.6565   0.4103  -0.3790  -0.5107  -0.7906  -0.7232
foreign |  -0.0174   0.4538   0.5922  -0.3347  -0.4053  -0.6460  -0.6110
reps1 |  -0.0945  -0.0086  -0.4230  -0.2550  -0.2175   0.0149   0.0054
reps2 |  -0.0223  -0.1346  -0.5180   0.1603   0.0586   0.1480   0.1778
reps3 |   0.0859  -0.2796  -0.3622   0.1726   0.2724   0.2975   0.2218
reps4 |  -0.0153   0.0384   0.3592  -0.0195  -0.0589  -0.1223  -0.0909
reps5 |  -0.0351   0.4542   0.7065  -0.2337  -0.2498  -0.3925  -0.3492

|     turn displa~t gear_r~o  foreign    reps1    reps2    reps3
-------------+---------------------------------------------------------------
turn |   1.0000
displacement |   0.8124   1.0000
gear_ratio |  -0.7005  -0.8381   1.0000
foreign |  -0.6768  -0.6383   0.7266   1.0000
reps1 |   0.0471  -0.0131  -0.0355  -0.1143   1.0000
reps2 |   0.2939   0.1733  -0.2468  -0.2395  -0.0626   1.0000
reps3 |   0.2526   0.3038  -0.2449  -0.3895  -0.1515  -0.3176   1.0000
reps4 |  -0.1748  -0.1231   0.2287   0.2526  -0.1026  -0.2151  -0.5211
reps5 |  -0.4110  -0.4093   0.2894   0.4863  -0.0752  -0.1577  -0.3820

|    reps4    reps5
-------------+------------------
reps4 |   1.0000
reps5 |  -0.2587   1.0000



Notice that it automatically ignored the string variable make. Not all commands will work this well, so _all may occasionally fail unexpectedly.

### 2.5.2 Pairwise completion vs complete case

You may have noticed that the cor command reports the number of observations it used, for example, the first few correlations all used 74 observations, but the _all version used on 69. correlate uses what’s known as complete cases analysis - any observation missing any value used in the command is excluded. rep78 is missing 5 observations (run the misstable summarize command to see this).

On the other hand, pairwise completion only excludes missing values from the relevant comparisons. If a given correlation doesn’t involve rep78, it will use all the data. We can obtain this with pwcorr.

. corr rep78 price trunk
(obs=69)

|    rep78    price    trunk
-------------+---------------------------
rep78 |   1.0000
price |   0.0066   1.0000
trunk |  -0.1572   0.3232   1.0000

. pwcorr rep78 price trunk

|    rep78    price    trunk
-------------+---------------------------
rep78 |   1.0000
price |   0.0066   1.0000
trunk |  -0.1572   0.3143   1.0000



Notice the two correlations involving rep78 are identical - the same set of observations are dropped in both. However, the correlation between price and trunk differs - in correlate, it is only using 69 observations, whereas in pwcorr it uses all 74.

It may seem that pwcorr is always superior (and, in isolation it is). However, most models such as regression only support complete cases analysis, so in those cases, if you are exploring your data, it does not make sense to do pairwise comparison. Ultimately, the choice remains up to you. If the results from correlate and pwcorr do differ drastically, that is a sign of something else going on!

### 2.5.3 Spearman correlation

One limitation of Pearson’s correlation is that it is detecting linear relationships only. A famous example of this is Anscombe’s quartet:

In each pair, the Pearson correlation is an identical .8162! In the first, that’s what we want. In the second, the relationship is strong but non-linear. In the third, only one value is not perfectly correlated, so the Pearsons correlation is diminished. In the fourth, only the existence of the single outlier is driving the relationship.

Spearman correlation is an alternative to Pearson correlation. It works by ranking each variable and then performing Pearson’s correlation. The command in Stata is spearman.

. corr price trunk
(obs=74)

|    price    trunk
-------------+------------------
price |   1.0000
trunk |   0.3143   1.0000

. spearman price trunk, matrix
(obs=74)

|    price    trunk
-------------+------------------
price |   1.0000
trunk |   0.3996   1.0000



The matrix option forces output to mirror correlate, otherwise it produces a slightly different output when given only two variables. spearman uses complete cases; to use pairwise complete instead, pass the option pw:

. spearman mpg-headroom, pw
(obs=varies)

-------------+---------------------------
mpg |   1.0000
rep78 |   0.3098   1.0000



How does Spearman’s correlation compare to Pearson’s for Anscombe’s quartet?

Comparison Pearson Spearman
$$y_1, x_1$$ .8162 .8182
$$y_2, x_2$$ .8162 .6909
$$y_3, x_3$$ .8162 .9909
$$y_4, x_4$$ .8162 .5000

The second correlation diminishes, the third drastically increases, and the fourth decreases as well.

## 2.6 Exercise 1

For these exercises, we’ll be using data from NHANES, the National Health And Nutrition Examination Survey. The data is on Stata’s website, and you can load it via

webuse nhanes2, clear

1. Use describe to get a sense of the data. How many observations? How many variables?
2. Use tab, summarize, codebook, and/or mean to get an understanding of the some of variables that we’ll be using going forward:
• region
• sex
• diabetes
• lead
3. Does race have any missing data? Does diabetes? Does lead?
4. What is more highly correlated? A person’s height and weight, or their diastolic and systolic blood pressure?